The State of Yette Sheher (1865-1877)
The State of East Turkistan, officially designated as the State of Yette Sheher [Yette Sheher Döleti], was a brief yet significant independent Turkic state, existing from 1864 to 1877. This state represented the first victorious endeavor by the Uyghurs and other Turkic peoples in East Turkistan to re-assert their independence and form a modern nation-state in the 19th century, following the Manchu Qing conquest of East Turkistan in 1759.
The establishment of the State of Yette Sheher emerged as a culmination of 42 consecutive attempts, spanning from 1759 to 1864, by the inhabitants of East Turkistan to resist the Manchu occupation and colonization, with the aim of reclaiming their sovereignty. Predominantly, the State of Yette Sheher was a manifestation of an anti-colonial independence movement, spearheaded by the Uyghur and other Turkic groups residing in East Turkistan and its immediate surroundings. It was distinctly Turkic in its essence, incorporating Uyghurs, Kazakhs, Uzbeks, Kyrgyz, and other Turkic peoples within its governance structure and demographic composition.
Positioned at the heart of the Great Power Competition in Central Asia, known as the “Great Game,” between the British and Russian Empires, the State of Yette Sheher found itself in a precarious geopolitical situation. In 1876, the British Hong Kong Shanghai Banking Corporation (HSBC) financed a renewed Manchu invasion of East Turkistan. The state’s eventual downfall was precipitated by the assassination of its monarch, Emir Muhammad Yaq’ub Beg, in May 1877, leading to its overthrow on December 18, 1877.
Nonetheless, the State of Yette Sheher has endured as a source of inspiration for subsequent movements, most notably in the formation of the First East Turkistan Republic over fifty years later. Its legacy persists, continuing to significantly influence the contemporary independence movement in East Turkistan, which aspires to re-establish an independent Turkic state in the region.
Creation of the the State of Yette Sheher
Following the Manchu conquest of East Turkistan in 1759, the region’s inhabitants persistently resisted the Manchu occupation, initiating approximately 42 rebellions between 1759 and 1864, with the objective of restoring their independence. In August 1863, a significant revolt erupted in Yarkent, located in southern East Turkistan, against the Manchu Empire. By 1864, this uprising had expanded throughout East Turkistan, with various Turkic peoples, fatigued by repression and foreign subjugation, revolting against the Manchu-appointed local rulers and their Manchu superiors.
In the wake of the 1863-1864 national uprising in East Turkistan, the Khanate of Khoqand, situated in present-day Uzbekistan, deployed Yaq’ub Beg, an Uzbek military officer, to aid the people of East Turkistan in expelling the remaining Manchu forces and to assist in establishing a modern state. In June 1864, Yaq’ub Beg aided Buzurg Khan Tora to capture Kashgar, leading to the establishment of the State of Yette Sheher [Uyghur: يەتتە شەھەر دۆلەتى or Yette Sheher Döleti] in East Turkistan. By July 1866, Yaqub Beg had assumed control from Buzurg Khan Tora, who proved ineffective in state governance. Subsequently, he successfully liberated Yarkand and Khotan by the end of 1866. By the spring of 1867, Yaq’ub Beg had also liberated Aksu and Kucha from the control of the Khojas and their Manchu overlords, thereby firmly establishing stability and order in East Turkistan.
East Turkistan and the "Great Game"
Following Ya’qub Beg’s successful liberation of southern East Turkistan, then recognized as Kashgaria, from Manchu Qing rule, the State of Yette Sheher endeavored to curtail commercial ties with Russia in 1867-1868. This initiative was driven by apprehensions that Russian commercial infiltration might lead to military expansion into East Turkistan, mirroring the events in the Khoqand Khanate. In response, the State of Yette Sheher initially closed its borders with West Turkistan, then under Russian control, and mobilized troops along the frontier. However, to further bolster its position, the State sought to establish diplomatic relations with the British Empire as a counterbalance to the Russian Empire.
In 1871, the Russian Empire, concerned that the Ili Sultanate in northwest East Turkistan might align with the State of Yette Sheher and jeopardize its hold over West Turkistan, initiated an invasion of the Ili Valley. The Ili Sultanate, an independent Uyghur state under the leadership of Alihan Sultan, had emerged in Ghulja following the national uprising of 1864.
Between 1870 and 1871, the State of Yette Sheher reclaimed the Turpan and Urumchi regions of East Turkistan, which had fallen under the occupation of Tunggan (Hui / Chinese Muslim) forces post the 1864 uprisings. In a strategic move to safeguard its sovereignty, Yaq’ub Beg pursued diplomatic engagement and sought recognition from the era’s great powers: the British Empire, the Russian Empire, and the Ottoman Empire. In June 1872, on the brink of conflict with Russia, the State of Yette Sheher reached an accord. Yaq’ub Beg consented to a commercial treaty in exchange for Russia’s recognition of his sovereignty over southern and eastern East Turkistan, including Urumchi and its surroundings.
To preempt any potential Russian invasion, the State of Yette Sheher sought support from Russia’s adversaries, the British Empire and the Ottoman Empire. From 1871 onwards, envoys were dispatched to these empires, leading to the establishment of official diplomatic relations with the Ottoman Empire in 1873, where Yaq’ub Beg was recognized as the Emir of the State of Yette Sheher. In February 1874, a commercial treaty with the British Empire was signed, formalizing diplomatic relations and mutual recognition.
Concurrently, the State of Yette Sheher focused on fortifying its military capabilities and defenses, apprehensive of potential invasions by the Manchus or Russians. Its army, numbering over 50,000 troops in the early 1870s, was a significant investment, with considerable resources allocated to acquiring modern weaponry. In 1873, the Ottoman Empire supplied the State of Yette Sheher with 1,200 rifles and six cannons. Efforts to procure an additional 12,000 modern rifles were partially successful, limited by financial constraints. Additionally, with British aid, the State of Yette Sheher established armament factories to upgrade its existing arsenal.
The Decline and Fall of the State of Yette Sheher
By 1873, officials of the Manchu Qing dynasty were engaged in a debate over the prospect of invading East Turkistan. Qing Viceroy Li-Hun-Chang expressed opposition to such an invasion. However, Chinese General Zuo Zongtang advocated for the invasion, arguing that “capturing East Turkistan is capturing Mongolia, and protecting Mongolia is protecting the capital (Beijing).” Due to the Manchu Empire’s financial constraints, General Zuo Zongtang secured substantial loans from the British Hong Kong-Shanghai Banking Corporation (HSBC) to fund a Manchu Qing expedition to conquer East Turkistan. The Qing used these loans to purchase modern rifles and Krupp cannons from Germany. Additionally, the Russians, wary of an independent Turkic state near their colonial holdings in Occupied West Turkistan (Central Asia), supplied grain and other foodstuffs to the Manchu armies.
In the spring of 1876, a formidable Manchu Qing army, numbering 90,000 and led by Zuo Zongtang, initiated an invasion of East Turkistan, capturing Urumchi on August 18, 1876. By April 1877, the Qing forces advanced into Turpan, where the armies of the State of Yette Sheher faced successive defeats due to their smaller numbers and lack of modern heavy artillery. Following numerous setbacks, Yaq’ub Beg retreated to Korla for regrouping but was poisoned on May 30, 1877, by the treacherous governor of Yarkent, Niyaz Hakim Beg. Post Yaq’ub Beg’s demise, the military forces of the State of Yette Sheher, lacking effective leadership, endured further defeats, culminating in the overthrow of the State on December 18, 1877. The Manchu Qing secured complete control over East Turkistan with the fall of Khoten in January 1878.
The State of Yette Sheher symbolized the first triumphant effort by the people of East Turkistan to re-establish an independent state since the fall of the Yarkent Khanate in 1678 and the initial Manchu Qing conquest of East Turkistan in 1759. The legacy of the State of Yette Sheher profoundly influenced the East Turkistan national movement in the early twentieth century and significantly impacted the re-establishment of East Turkistan’s independence through the formation of the East Turkistan Republics in 1933 and 1944.